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Chapter 6
Environmental Pollution Control Measures
While modern societies face growing concern environmental problems can be attributed to the
about global environmental issues, developing prevailing emphasis at the time on economic
countries are experiencing complex, serious and growth and profits at the expense of public health.
fast-growing pollution problems of their own. The For this reason, the government was unwilling to
potent combination of industrialization, urban pursue environmental strategies. Worsening
development and mass consumption trends is environmental problems led to the emergence of
exacerbated by foreign companies operating with numerous victims’ groups and turned the tide of
little regard for the impact on the local environment. public opinion, so that governments at the
Environmental pollution is more than just a health prefectural and national level were forced to act.
issue; it is a wider social issue in that pollution has Eventually, after much trial and error, effective
the potential to destroy homes and communities. strategies for dealing with environmental pollution
Pollution problems are also closely tied to the mode were put in place and as a result the quality of the
of development in developing countries. Despite this, environment began to improve.
many developing countries either have not developed By describing Japan’s experiences with respect
environmental pollution control measures, or have to the problems caused by the initial reluctance to
not provided adequate implementation structures address environmental issues, as well as the success
to ensure that policies are effective. of subsequent environmental initiatives, it is hoped
During the period of rapid economic growth that we can help to prevent worsening health
after the Second World War, Japan experienced a problems in developing countries and promote
variety of terrible environmental problems on a sound and healthy social development.
scale unprecedented in the world. These This chapter presents an overview of the
Table 6-1 Seven Categories of Pollution
Category Major causes Major symptoms Examples
Atmospheric Smoke, dust, exhaust fumes, toxic substances (such as Asthma, bronchitis Photochemical smog, “Yokkaichi
pollution sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide) Asthma”
Polluted waste water, waste fluids (such as Minamata Disease, “Itai-Itai”
Water pollution petroleum), sludge, household sewage, sewage Noxious odors, poisoning Disease (cadmium poisoning),
discharge, general waste, agricultural chemicals PCB poisoning
Soil pollution Arsenic, heavy metals (especially in agricultural Poisoning
chemicals)
Factories, construction work, road traffic, trains and Headaches, insomnia,
Noise aircraft, late-night commercial operations, depression, hearing loss, Osaka Airport noise
advertising impaired development
Vibration Factories, construction work, road traffic, trains and Dizziness, discomfort, Shinkansen (bullet train)
aircraft structural damage to homes vibration
Ground Upswelling of groundwater, gravel quarrying, coal Structural damage to Koto Ward, Tokyo
subsidence mining buildings
Exhaust fumes, river contamination,
Noxious odors sanitation facilities, accumulated sewage, Headaches, discomfort Sewage in the Sumida River
livestock farms, etc.
Source: Based on the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control.
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Japan’s Experience in Public Health and Medical Systems
Table 6-2 The History of Environmental Pollution Control Measures
Classifications used in Chapter 6
The history of environmental pollution control measures (Iijima 1993)
1. Prior to 1868 (before the Edo Era): First protest actions by victims of pollution
2. 1869–1914 (Meiji Era to First World War): Emphasis on industrial development Beginnings of environmental pollution
3. 1914–1945 (First World War through to end of Second World War): Emphasis on nation-building
4. 1945–1954: Pollution becomes an issue in wider society
Social awareness of environmental pollution
5. 1955–1964: Extensive pollution damage during period of rapid industrial growth
6. 1965–1974: Pollution problems continue to worsen Environmental pollution control measures commenced in earnest
7. 1975–1984: Lack of commitment in environmental policy Pollution control measures lose momentum,
8. 1985–present: Mounting concern for global environmental issues increased awareness of environmental problems
Source: Based on Iijima, Nobuko (1993) report.
history of pollution problems and countermeasures been grouped into four main periods to clarify the
in Japan. The specific case of Minamata Disease past experiences of Japan that are of relevance to
will be discussed in detail, looking at questions such developing countries today. Below we present an
as the difficulties encountered in the implementation overview of the social background in each period
of pollution initiatives and the wider social roles of and the development of pollution control measures.
those responsible for, or otherwise related to, the
initial problem. This will be followed by an analysis 1-3 Trends in Environmental Pollution
of environmental policy and philosophy in Japan to Control Measures
identify those experiences and initiatives that have
relevance for developing countries today. 1-3-1 Beginning of Environmental Pollution
(1600s~1945)
The first known instance of pollution damage
1. Overview of Environmental Pollution in Japan involved emissions of wastewater
Control Measures containing heavy metals by mining operations back
in the 1600’s, before the Edo Era. Affected farmers
1-1 What is Environmental Pollution? and fishermen launched bitter protests against the
The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution environmental pollution and sought compensation
Control defines environmental pollution as any for damages, and their efforts generated
activity, by corporations or individuals, which widespread public interest.
compromises the health and/or environment of From the Meiji Era through to the beginning
other persons in a localized area, where the causal of the First World War (1868~1914), a strong
link is clearly established. There are seven categories emphasis on national prosperity, military power
of environmental pollution. (see Table 6-2) and industrial growth saw considerable resources
devoted to development of the three core industries
1-2 Change Over Time in Environmental of mining, cloth spinning, and steel manufacturing.
Pollution Control Measures These policies led to environmental problems such
Table 6-2 shows the history of pollution and as smoke, noise and water pollution. Environmental
pollution control measures in Japan, divided into damage was not confined to the areas surrounding
eight distinct phases from before the Edo Era such operations; city dwellers were often affected
(1603~1868) up to the present day1. For the too. Local governments were the first to take the
purposes of this document, the eight phases have initiative to address the situation, introducing a
1 Iijima, Nobuko (1993) Kankyo Shakaigaku [Environmental Sociology] Yukikaku.
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Chapter 6 Environmental Pollution Control Measures
range of regulations and restrictions. At the Ordinance, enacted by the Tokyo Metropolitan
national level, however, the government welcomed Government in 1959. Unfortunately, these regulations
pollution as evidence of progress and prosperity, were largely ineffective, due to the lax criteria and the
and consequently very few of the environmental level of opposition from industry. This experience
pollution control measures contained in the prompted local governments to take a tougher stance
Factories Act (1911) and the Mining Law (1905) on imposing emission standards, building treatment
were actually enforced. and processing facilities, monitoring pollution
From the commencement of the First World emissions, and providing administrative guidance
War until the end of the Second World War where necessary. Taxation and other incentives were
(1914~1945), priority was given at the national also introduced to encourage the adoption of
level to the development of industries to meet the environmental pollution control measures by industry.
demands of the military—in particular steel In response to the increasingly strident protests
production and heavy industries. Increased of pollution victims, the national government also
production levels generated a range of problems began preparing legislation to control environmental
including atmospheric pollution, water pollution, pollution, building on the work of local governments.
noxious odors, noise, and land subsidence of fields The process was delayed, however, by difficulties in
and other areas. These in turn prompted efforts to obtaining consensus among the relevant ministries
create pollution reduction initiatives such as the and agencies, compounded by fierce opposition
world’s first ever pollution prevention system, from industry groups. When it finally arrived, the
developed by Sumitomo Metal Mining. Given the legislation was largely ineffectual. In 1961, the first
overriding emphasis on national prosperity, however, national environmental pollution control laws were
public health issues received scant attention and enacted, in the form of the Two Water Quality
protests by victims of pollution were largely Regulation Laws for the regulation of pollution
overlooked. sources. Here again, the legislation lacked teeth,
and environmental damage continued to worsen. It
1-3-2 Social Awareness of Environmental should be remembered, though, that the pollution
Pollution (1946~1964) control measures were introduced in the context of
The main priority in the aftermath of the Second the main priority at that time of promoting
World War was nation rebuilding; consequently, economic growth, and were therefore designed to
economic growth was the top priority from the late avoid conflict with this overriding objective.
1950s onwards. Considerable effort was put into the
development of heavy industries and the construction 1-3-3 Environmental Pollution Control Measures
of petrochemical plants. The steel, oil, aluminum and Commenced in Earnest (1965~1974)
power industries generated huge quantities of a range The combination of rapid industrial development
of pollutants, which in the absence of effective (particularly in the petrochemical and heavy
pollution countermeasures led to a rash of health industries), strong economic growth, and
problems on a scale unprecedented in the world at unprecedented urban expansion led to a
that time, including Minamata Disease, “Itai-Itai” tremendous increase in pollutant emissions. A
Disease and pollution-related asthma. In the year succession of new and different pollutants began to
1960, the city of Osaka recorded smog on 156 days, appear, and the problems worsened. For example,
and the rivers resembled open sewers. in 1971 sulfur dioxide emissions in the three major
Post-war environmental pollution control municipal areas in Japan were three times the
measures were initiated in Japan at the local national average, and nine times the 1955 level of
government level during the 1950s. The first formal 16 t. On some days it was not possible to go outside
measures were the Factory Pollution Control at all. Afflictions such as Minamata Disease and “Itai-
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Japan’s Experience in Public Health and Medical Systems
Itai” Disease began to appear in other areas of the flurry of activity on the part of the government,
country. Japan became known as the pollution capital resulting in a range of measures such as the Basic
of the world. Law for Environmental Pollution Control, a special
Public protests became increasingly vociferous pollution session of the national diet, and the
and were taken up by the mass media, which had Environment Agency. This period also saw a
the effect of raising general public awareness and reversal of the approach adopted in environmental
concern about pollution issues. Scientists and other regulation. Instead of imposing emission limits on
academics began organizing environmental specific pollutants, regulations now sought to
assessments and resident awareness meetings. provide target environmental standards as the
Interestingly, residents’ groups focused on local ultimate objectives to be achieved. Environmental
governments rather than the national government, standards for sulfur dioxide emissions were released
a strategy that proved most effective. Mounting in 1969, followed by vehicle exhaust and water
public dissatisfaction at the unwillingness of the pollution level limits in 1970, noise pollution limits in
national government to take proper action on 1971 and carbon dioxide and photochemical oxidant
pollution issues impacted on approval ratings, and emissions limits in 1973. As a result, atmospheric
the government was eventually forced to give and water pollution levels were improved
priority to public health and lifestyle issues. significantly in a relatively short period of time.
The early 1970s saw a steady succession of
legal actions against polluters, resulting in victories 1-3-4 Pollution Control Measures Lose
in the four major pollution trials (Minamata Momentum, Increased Awareness of
Disease in Niigata, Yokkaichi Asthma, “Itai-Itai” Environmental Problems (1975 onwards)
Disease and Minamata Disease in Kumamoto). The The combined impact of the “oil shock” and an
findings in favor of the victims prompted a revision economic downturn in the latter half of the 1970s led
of environmental standards and compensation to increased criticism of and opposition to pollution
plans, and caused a fundamental shift in thinking on controls in business and economic circles, and the
pollution, from being considered acceptable for the government was obliged to modify its stance. The
overall public good to being considered generally level of public protests had also weakened
unacceptable. somewhat. Domestic companies began looking to
The combination of rising public opposition set up offshore operations, primarily in Asian
and the success of the pollution trials prompted a countries with less stringent pollution controls.
Worsening Pollution Problems
Photo 1: Smoke from chimney stacks fills the sky Photo 2: Children take lessons wearing face masks to
(December 1972; photo by Mainichi Shimbun Co. Ltd) block out the smell (Arakawa Ward, Tokyo, December
1967; photo by Mainichi Shimbun Co. Ltd)
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