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Civil Engineering and Architecture 10(2): 438-446, 2022 http://www.hrpub.org
DOI: 10.13189/cea.2022.100204
Identification and Categorization of Building Defects
Omar Mostafa Alomari
Department of Architectural, College of Engineering, Al-Balqa Applied University, Jordan
Received November 22, 2021; Revised January 12, 2022; Accepted February 8, 2022
Cite This Paper in the following Citation Styles
(a): [1] Omar Mostafa Alomari , "Identification and Categorization of Building Defects," Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 438-446, 2022. DOI: 10.13189/cea.2022.100204.
(b): Omar Mostafa Alomari (2022). Identification and Categorization of Building Defects. Civil Engineering and
Architecture, 10(2), 438-446. DOI: 10.13189/cea.2022.100204.
Copyright©2022 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
Abstract The problem of building defects is one of the world [1]. In addition, the past years have seen many
common problems that occur throughout the lifecycle of technological developments, which encourage the building
the building. The construction stakeholders consider it a occupants to focus more on the safety and suitability of the
critical issue that led to costs and time implications of buildings to achieve the requirements of satisfactory living.
reworks. Mostly, repairing construction defects requires a Therefore, people are increasingly interested in providing
cost approximately ranging from 2.4% to 3.15% of the quality housing facilities for functionality and beauty due
total cost of building. Therefore, the current study looks to developments in various sectors [2]. The fundamental
forward to discovering and classifying the common factors purpose of a building is to protect its users and contents
contributing to construction defects. To achieve this from various external elements, specifically, wind,
objective, the researcher adopted a qualitative method to extremes of temperature and rain [3]. This requires that all
collect and analyze the needed data through deep review of elements of the building be able to achieve the required
several previous studies that focused on the causes of protection. According to Poles, GC, RCI, & Times. [4], to
building defects. Accordingly, this study identified 57 survive, the construction must be structurally sound, and
common contributing factors of building defects, which are the floors able to withstand any loads normally imposed.
classified into five groups according to their sources. These Thus, to ensure the long-term safety and quality of the
groups are Factors related to design, Factors related to building, the causes of defects must be avoided [5].
construction, Factors related to materials, Factors related to It is worth noting that some flaws in the building cause
human and External factors. Understanding the other defects. The condition of a building component or
contributing factors of the building defects can help system installed in it may also impact the overall condition
construction stakeholders take and develop various of the building [6]. In fact, most latent defects manifest
strategies to reduce the existence of defects in newly themselves only during the occupancy stage, and it can be
constructed buildings. Positively, the findings of this study challenging to gain access to occupied buildings to gather
could upgrade the management efficiency of the building information on these defects [7]. In addition, the repair of
defects assessment process in the future, which will help to these defects requires enormous funds to repair them.
avoid them as much as possible. Therefore, it is necessary to research the causes of these
Keywords Causes, Building Defects, Construction, defects in order to reduce them during the design and
Design, Factors implementation stages.
There are various definitions for defects, as stated in
several studies. The defect, according to Webster's
Dictionary, is defined as the absence of something
necessary for completeness [3]. Besides, ISO 15686-1
1. Introduction states that a defect is an error or deviation from the
intended performance level of a building or its parts [8]. On
In recent years, the demand for buildings has increased the other hand, a building defect can be any issue that
globally due to the growth of the population around the decreases the worth of a building [3]. Defects, according to
Civil Engineering and Architecture 10(2): 438-446, 2022 439
Ojo and Ijatuyi [9], are errors that may minimize the elements are not fully effective. Accordingly, the
strength, sturdiness, or helpfulness of a construction work. appearance of defects in the building reduces the quality
Consequently, building defects can be defined as issues of the building. One of the hindrances to the project's
that lower the building specification standards and, success is quality, while poor quality during the
therefore, the value of the building. construction phase helps in the occurrence of many
Building defects can endanger building occupants or defects [13]. As known, in the construction context, poor
users, as well as jeopardize the safe operation and use of quality can mean that project goal cannot be achieved, or
building facilities [6]. These risks need many repairs, that customer needs are not being met.
which means additional costs. Aside from the product's In addition to reducing the quality, defects also lead to
final cost, the construction of a defective building has additional costs. It is clear that the costs of defects have a
repercussions throughout the life cycle of the building in noteworthy impact on construction project cost
the form of maintenance costs [10]. Building defects, in performance [19]. For example, Mills, Love, & Williams.
particular, have a significant influence on construction [20] stated that defect costs accounted for 4% of the cost
time, cost, sustainability, output and satisfaction of of the new construction contracts. Whereas, Love and Li
customers [11]. Furthermore, if these issues persist, those [21] found that the defective costs of residential and
working in the construction industry will be subjected to a industrial buildings were 3.15% and 2.40%,
slew of processes and regulations before starting their work correspondingly. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the
[3]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the critical causes cost of defects in buildings is considered a significant
of building defects to reduce the risk of defects. percentage. Therefore, it is necessary to seek to find the
Therefore, the first step in resolving any building defect suggestions required to reduce building defects, and this is
problem is the correct diagnosis of the cause [12]. by identifying the leading causes of defects.
Consequently, it is essential to define the source of the The study by Yacob et al. [5] mentioned that building
issues and then find a solution to them [13]. Therefore, the defects are a problem faced by most buildings, regardless
current study focuses on identifying the serious factors that of building construction techniques or age, but it all
give rise to defects in construction buildings. This is done depends on the causes and factors that cause the defects to
by reviewing various literature that dealt with the causes of occur. The significance of various construction defects
building defects. Besides, this paper presents the most has been established, and their importance to building
prominent causes of construction defects by grouping them maintenance is recognized [22]. Building defects can be
into main groups according to the sources of these causes. caused by an architectural design error, a manufacturing
To better understand the impact of defects, it is necessary defect, the use of inferior materials, improper use of
to classify them. Furthermore, a defect classification is materials, a contractor's failure to comply with the design,
essential for parties who want to file a claim against a or any combination of these factors [3]. Furthermore, it
builder or another party [14]. was discovered by Waziri [23] that several construction
defects could be fully explained or partially by easily
2. Literature Review identifiable construction errors that could have been
predicted and thus avoided. It is worth noting that various
2.1. Building Defects causes have been identified in different studies. Hence,
Construction defects are a common phenomenon in the the current study focused on collecting these reasons and
world, which are the key to the attention of the arranging them in several groups according to their
construction industry [15]. Therefore, construction defects sources.
are one of the significant construction issues that need Regarding defective buildings, the most common
great consideration [16]. The majority of countries are hurdle is recovering the costs of rectifying defects
suffering from building defects despite the variety in their discovered before physical damage occurs [24].
conditions. For example, "defects and deviations from According to several studies, the cost of construction
standards in construction products are a persistent source defects ranges between 5 and 10% of the production cost
of worry in Ghana's construction industry," write Baiden [22]. Defects can occur during the construction process, as
and Tuuli [17]. In addition, Kazaz and Bir Gonul [18], in well as during the delivery and residence. Furthermore,
their study in Turkey, pointed out that in the construction Chong and Low [25] reported that defects discovered
industry, satisfaction with the quality level is not achieved, during the construction and occupancy phases are usually
which is a serious problem. It is clear that construction distinct. While some defects are latent during the
defects are a common occurrence in most buildings construction phase, they are not visible and cannot be
worldwide. identified until the buildings are used.
A construction defect is defined as a failure of a 2.2. Factors Causing Building Defects
building component to be installed properly. According to
Yacob, Ali, & Au-Yong. [5], they are defined as flaws in Globally, the number of aged buildings is increasing,
anything that detracts from faultlessness, whereas damage and in most countries, this is attended by a raise in building
to a building occurs when construction work or building defects and associated costs [26]. A construction defect can
440 Identification and Categorization of Building Defects
reduce and affect the worth of the buildings. Building study by Hauashdh, Jailani, Rahman, and Al-Fadhali. [33]
defects, in particular, reduce the lifespan of buildings, also classified building defects into seven types, namely
endanger the safety and health of users, and prevent Defects related to building structural elements, Defects
buildings from performing their functions properly [21& related to technical installation and technology use,
27]. Thus, the presence of defects leads to a reduction of Defects related to (HVAC) system, Defects related to the
the value of the buildings. It is worth noting that these water supply system, Defects related to the transportation
defects are not limited to a specific stage. In their study, system, Defects related to building services, Defects
Forcada et al. [28] confirmed that the defects detected at related to the fire system. It is clear from the different
each stage of the building life cycle (construction, classifications in previous studies that there are various
handover, post-handover, and maintenance) are different. and multiple defects throughout the life cycle of the
Defects occur as a result of different causes in terms of the building, as each study relies on a specific basis for
source, where these reasons vary in the degree of danger to classifying defects, which confirms that the building
the building. A defect's cause is a time-dependent event defects are different and multiple.
that causes parts, elements, components, and building Additionally, the study by Hauashdh et al. [33] outlined
materials to fail. the significant factors affecting the number of building
Construction defects are caused by various factors, some defects in Malaysian Public Universities’ Buildings. It
of which are observable to the eye and others that are also classified the factors affecting the building defects
acutely unseen within the structure. Some construction into eight types, which are factors relevant to building
defects that directly affect the performance of structures design, factors relevant to building materials
are caused by poor design or construction [23]. specifications, factors relevant to maintenance contractors,
Construction failures and defects can also occur because of factors relevant to defects inspection and detection,
the use of inappropriate materials, poor production, or factors relevant to building users’ awareness, factors
misunderstanding of different designs [22]. Ilozor, Okoroh, relevant to building’s age, factors relevant to the type of
and Egbu [29] demonstrated that some defects lead to the building function and factors relevant to types of building
appearance of other defects, and therefore preventing the services. Concerning determining the most defective
main defects can prevent the appearance of many defects. components of the building, the study conducted by Wali
Hence, it is necessary to detect the factors that contribute to and Ali [34] found that the most components were doors
the construction defects at the early stage to avoid further and windows, which came in the first place at a
defects from occurring. According to several studies, percentage of 75%, followed by painting and painting the
various types of building defects were classified according doors in the second place at 75%, and in the third place
to their source or effects. were cracks in the structural elements by 73%.
For example, Bakri and Mydin [16] classified defects In the construction industry, two factors are rarely
into two types: structural defects and non-structural defects. considered: the buildability of the design and the
A structural defect is a defect that appears in a structural materials' durability. The first one specifies whether good
element, which is the result of a specific defect in materials workmanship can ever be achieved if the necessary
or designs, or both [3]. On the other hand, the structural reasonable care and skill are present and the cost of the
defects in the foundation and structural instability are due design. Second, the materials' durability, which represents
to over-stressing. A building's structure consists of the life span of each material in a given environment
columns, earth retaining walls, fat slabs, and beams [22]. In before it deteriorates, either partially or completely [35].
contrast, non-structural defects in the building are any Many previous literature review results showed
defects in the non-structural elements of the building that multiple reasons for building defects that differ from one
do not compromise the structural integrity of the building, study to another. For instance, the study by Summerlin
which include defects in brickwork, moisture and defects and Ogborn [36] revealed that construction defects could
in various finishes. be caused by an architectural design error, manufacturing
On the other hand, Lee, Lee, and Kim. [30] classified defect, inferior materials, improper use of materials, or
defects into eight categories according to the causes of their failure to comply with blueprints and specifications.
occurrence, which are as follows: poor job performance, According to the level of importance, the main
cracked objects, abrasion, separation, improper fitting, contributing reasons for defects are low material quality,
missing mission, surface appearance, and water issues. In poor workmanship, design flaws, and occupants' lack of
addition, in another study [31], construction defects also awareness [37]. Furthermore, Ahzahar et al. [3]
are classified into four types: design flaws, material flaws, discovered that the most popular cause of building defects
construction flaws, and geotechnical issues. It is worth is poor construction material quality. The study by Ramli
noting that the effects of defects are described as slight, et al. [38], which aimed to identify common building
"minor", "moderate" or even very severe [32]. As a starting defects in heritage buildings in Malaysia, revealed that the
point for defining degree, the Building Research common causes are cracks in concrete and brick walls,
Establishment suggests three broad categories of timber defects, dampness and salt attack, and defective
‘aesthetic’, ‘serviceability’ and ‘stability [15]. Another plaster and paint.
Civil Engineering and Architecture 10(2): 438-446, 2022 441
Figure 1. Causes of building defects through the lifecycle of building, Source (Yoon, Son, & Kim, 2021)
According to the study conducted by Chong and Low 3. Methodology
[25], most of the defects related to human factors are 29% This study focuses on the categorization of the factors
due to forgetfulness, neglect and lack of knowledge, while that influence building defects. To achieve the objective
a small percentage were intended. On the other hand, of this study, data were collected from several previous
Seeley [39] notes that design errors are responsible for studies that dealt with the causes of building defects.
58% of defects, operational and installation errors cause Since the research objectives require in-depth exploration
35%, poor materials and systems cause 12%, and 11% and research, the qualitative approach of the current study
result from unexpected user requirements. Besides, A is the most appropriate because it refers to the results of
Ransom [40] survey found that wear and tear represented previous studies about the title of the study. Accordingly,
56% of all defects explored. In comparison, poor design several previous studies were deeply reviewed to explore
decisions accounted for 20%, and materials and the common causes of building defects. The methodology
workmanship accounted for 20%. of the study includes two main phases. In the first phase,
Many studies have indicated that the causes of building several previous studies that dealt with the causes of
defects appear throughout the life cycle of the building building defects were collected. Through a deep review of
from its inception to its use. The study by Yoon, Son, and these studies, the researcher collected around 57 causes of
Kim [41] summarized various causes of building defects building defects. Phase two of this study focused on
through a comprehensive review of previous studies, classifying the collected causes in groups based on their
which are classified according to the stages of the source. According to the comprehensive review conducted
building’s life cycle as shown in Figure 1, which includes in this research, the researcher suggested the main groups
the design stage, construction stage, curing stage, and within which the causes can be arranged, where the causes
operation and maintenance stage. arising from the same source were arranged in one group.
Based on the results of the study by Kian [42], four Based on this, the researcher identified five groups of
critical factors contribute to building defects, such as factors, namely Factors related to design, Factors related
improper loading in the build phase, lack of knowledge to construction, Factors related to materials, Factors
about building elements, incorrect identification of the related to human and External factors.
cause of the defect and failure to perform the required
maintenance, failure to connect and join for items. 4. Results and Discussion
Previous research by Talib, Ahmad, Zakaria, & Sulieman.
[43] found that factors affecting building defects include According to an in-depth review of previous studies
inadequate building maintenance, neglected site status, that investigated factors contributing to construction
defective materials, building ageing, poor quality control, defects, 57 critical factors were collected and categorized
the nonexistence of training, absence of motivation, poor into various groups according to their source. The
communication, environmental situations, and a moisture common factors in the source were grouped into one
problem. group, and accordingly, they were classified into five
groups, as shown in Figure 2. The factors included in each
group are discussed in the following sub-sections.
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