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andrea deplazes ed birkhauser constructing architecture materials processes structures a handbook materials modules msonry 2 2 types of construction birkhauser publishers for architecture basel boston berlin materials modules masonry systems ...

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                ANDREA DEPLAZES (ED.)                    BIRKHÄUSER
             CONSTRUCTING ARCHITECTURE
               MATERIALS PROCESSES STRUCTURES 
             A HANDBOOK
                              Materials-Modules
                                     Msonry
                         2-2 Types of Construction
                Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture
                Basel · Boston · Berlin
                                                                                                                                                       MATERIALS – MODULES                                                                                      Masonry
                                                                                                                                                                                            Systems in architecture
                                   Types of construction
                                                                                              Compartmentation                                                                           Although today we are not necessarily restricted in our 
                                                                                             The building of compartments is a typical trait of  masonry                                 choice of materials (because sheer unlimited construc-
                                                                                             construction. By compartments we mean a system of                                           tional possibilities are available), economic considerations 
                                                                                             inter linked, fully enclosed spaces whose connections with                                  frequently force similar decisions.
                                                                                             one another and to the outside consist only of individual                                        But as long as the range of conditions for compart-
                                                                                             openings (windows, doors). The outward appearance is,                                       mentation are related to the construction itself, the build-
                                                                                             for a whole host of reasons, “ compartment-like”. How-                                      ings are distinguished by a remarkable clarity in their 
                                                                                             ever, at least this type of construction does present a self-                               internal organisation and outward appearance. Looked 
                                                                                             contained building form with simple, cubelike outlines.                                     at positively, if we regard the provisional end of compact 
                                                                                             The  compartment system uses the possibilities of the                                        compartment construction as being in the 1930s (ignor-
                                                                                              masonry to the full. All the walls can be loaded equally                                   ing developments since 1945), it is possible to find good 
                                                                                             and can stabilise each other, and hence their dimensions                                    examples, primarily among the residential buildings of that 
                                                                                             (insofar as they are derived from the loadbearing function)                                 time. After the war, developments led to variations on this 
                                                                                             can be minimised. The  plan layout options are, however,                                    theme. The compartmentation principle was solved three-
                                                                                             limited.                                                                                    dimensionally and is, in combination with small and mini 
                                                                                                                                                                                         forms, quite suitable for  masonry; through experimenta-
                                                                                                                                                                                         tion, however, it would eventually become alienated into a 
                                                                                                                                                                                         hybrid form, mixed with other types of construction.
                                                                                                                                                                                          Box    frame  construction
                                                                                                                                                                                         This is the provision of several or many loadbearing 
                                                                                                                                                                                         walls in a parallel arrangement enclosing a large number 
                                                                                                                                                                                         of boxlike spaces subject to identical conditions. The 
                                                                                                                                                                                         intention behind this form of construction might be, for 
                                                                                                                                                                                         instance, to create repetitive spaces or buildings facing 
                                   Fig. 71:  Compartmentation as a principle:                      Of the categories presented here, compartmenta-
                                   elevation (top) and plan of upper  floor (right)          tion is the oldest type of construction. Contraints were 
                                   Adolf Loos: Moller  House, Vienna (A), 1928
                                                                                             imposed naturally by the materials available – apart 
                                                                                             from the  frame we are aware of coursed  masonry and, 
                                                                                             for floors and roofs, timber joists as valid precepts up 
                                                                                             until the 19th century. Over centuries these constraints 
                                                                                             led to the development and establishment of this form 
                                                                                             of construction in the respective architectural con-
                                                                                             text. In fact, in the past the possibilities of one-way-
                                                                                             spanning  floor systems (timber   joist floors) were not fully 
                                                                                             exploited. Today, the  reinforced concrete slab, which 
                                                                                             normally spans in two directions, presents us with opti-
                                                                                             mum utilisation options.
                                                                                             The following criteria have considerable influence on the 
                                                                                             order and discipline of an architectural design:
                                                                                             –  the need to limit the depth and orientation of the 
                                                                                                   plans;
                                                                                             –  and together with this the independence of horizon-
                                                                                                   tal loadbearing systems (timber joists span approx. 
                                                                                                   4.5 m) at least in one direction;
                                                                                             –  and together with this the restriction on the covered 
                                                                                                   areas principally to a few space relationships and lay-
                                                                                                   outs;
                                                                                             –  openings in loadbearing walls are positioned not at 
                                                                                                   random but rather limited and arranged to suit the 
                                                                                                    loadbearing  structure.                                                              Fig. 72: Box frames as a governing design principle
                                                                                                                                                                                         Le Corbusier: private house (Sarabhai), Achmedabad (India), 1955
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   49
                                              MATERIALS – MODULES                       Masonry
                                                                                                                               Systems in architecture 
                                                                                        in a principal direction for reasons of sunlight or the view,     walls (plates) and partly by non-loadbearing elements 
                                                                                        or simply the growing need for buildings – linked with            (e.g.  glass partitions). This presupposes the availability of 
                                                                                        the attempt to reach an aesthetic but likewise economical         horizontal loadbearing elements which comply with these 
                                                                                        and technically simple basic form. In fact, box   frame con-      various conditions in the sense of load  relief and transfer 
                                                                                        struction does present an appearance of conformity. After         of horizontal forces.
                                                                                        all, a row is without doubt an aesthetic principle which is           We therefore have essentially two criteria:
                                                                                        acknowledged as such.                                             –  A type of spatial (fluid) connection and opening, the 
                                                                                            In terms of construction, a box  frame is a series of             likes of which are not possible in the rigid box  frame 
                                                                                        loadbearing walls transverse to the longitudinal axis of              system, but especially in compartmentation.
                                                                                        a building, which are joined by the floors to longitudinal        –  The technical restrictions with respect to the suitability 
                                                                                        walls which stabilise the whole structure. To a certain               of this arrangement for  masonry materials; inevitably, 
                                                                                        extent, a true box  frame is not possible owing to the need           the random positioning of walls leads to problems of 
                                                                                        for stability in the longitudinal direction, which is laid down       bearing pressure at the ends of such wall plates or at 
                                                                                        in numerous standards. Therefore, box   frame construc-               individual points where concentrated loads from the 
                                                                                        tion is frequently used in conjunction with other categories          horizontal elements have to be carried.
                                                                                        (compartmentation and plates). The following criteria pre-            Only in special cases will it therefore be possible to 
                                                                                        ordain box  frame construction for certain building tasks         create such an unrestricted system from homogeneous 
                                                                                        and restrict its degree of usefulness:                             masonry (using the option of varying the thickness of the 
                                                                                        –  Restrictions to width of rooms and building by spans           walls or columns).
                                                                                            that are prescribed in terms of materials, economy,               Nevertheless, we wish to have the option of regard-
                                                                                            etc. (e.g. one-way-spanning floors).                          ing buildings not as self-contained entities but rather as 
                                                                                        –  Heavy – because they are loadbearing – parti tions             sequences of spaces and connections from inside and 
                                                                                            with correspondingly good  insulation properties  outside. As the wall is, in principle, unprejudiced with re-
                                                                                            (“screening” against the neighbours).                         gard to functional conditions and design intentions, the 
                                                                                        –  External walls without restrictions on their construc-         various characteristics of the wall can be traced back to 
                                                                                            tion, with maximum light admittance, option of deep           the beginnings of modern building.
                                                                                            plans and favourable  facade–plan area ratios.                    The catalyst for this development was indubitably 
                                                                                        The first examples of true box frames originated on the           Frank Lloyd Wright, who with his “prairie houses”, as he 
                                                                                        drawing boards of architects who wanted to distance               called the first examples, understood how to set stand-
                                                                                        themselves from such primary arguments; the large resi-           ards. The interior spaces intersect, low and broad, and 
                                                                                        dential estates of the 1920s designed by Taut, Wagner, and        terraces and gardens merge into one.
                                                                                        May, influenced by industrial methods of manu facture.                Mies van der Rohe’s design for a country house in 
                                                                                                                                                           brickwork (1923) is a good example (see “Masonry; 
                                                                                        Plates                                                            Masonry bonds”). Here, he combines the flexible rules of 
                                                                                        In contrast to the parallel accumulation of boxes, we as-         composition with Frank Lloyd Wright’s organic building 
                                                                                        sume that plates enable an unrestricted positioning of            principles, the fusion with the landscape.
                                                                                        walls beneath a horizontal  loadbearing structure ( floor or          The  plan layout is derived exclusively from the func-
                                                                                         roof).                                                           tions. The rooms are bounded by plain, straight, and 
                                                                                            So, provided these plates do not surround spaces (too)        right-angled, intersecting walls, which are elevated to de-
                                              Fig. 73: Uninterrupted space continuum    completely – i.e. do not form compartments – we can               sign elements and by extending far into the gardens link 
                                              Marcel Breuer: Robinson  House, Williamstown 
                                              (USA), 1948                               create spaces that are demarcated partly by load bearing          the house with its surroundings. Instead of the window 
                                                                                                                                                          apertures so typical of compartmentation, complete wall 
                                                                                                                                                          sections are omitted here to create the openings.
                                                                                                                                                              Richard Neutra and Marcel Breuer, representing the 
                                                                                                                                                           International Style, provide further typical examples. The 
                                                                                                                                                          sublimation of the wall to a planar, loadbearing element 
                                                                                                                                                          that completely fulfils an enclosing function as well is both 
                                                                                                                                                          modern and ancient.
                                                                                                                                                              We have to admit that pure forms, like those used 
                                                                                                                                                          by the protagonists of modern building, are on the 
                                                                                                                                                          decline. Combinations of systems are both normal and valid. 
                                                                                                                                                          A chamber can have a stiffening, stabilising effect in the 
                                                                                                                                                          sense of a  compartment (this may well be functional if 
                                              Fig. 74: The openings lend structure to and result from the arrangement of the plates                       indeed not physical).
                                              Marcel Breuer: Gane’s  Pavilion, Bristol (GB), 1936
                 50
                                                                                                                                                        MATERIALS – MODULES                                                                                       Masonry
                                                                                                                                                                                             Systems  in  architecture   
                                                                                                    The box  frame can be employed to form identical in-                                        Owing to the faulted subsoil, the chosen form of 
                                                                                              terior spaces. And the straight or right-angled  plate per-                                  construction led to major settlement problems because 
                                                                                              mits user-defined elements right up to intervention in the                                   the columns had to carry different  compression loads. 
                                                                                              external spaces.                                                                             Flaminius described the problems that occurred: “There 
                                                                                                                                                                                           are no long, continuous walls with small or even no open-
                                                                                              Schinkel’s Academy of Architecture: an example of                                            ings on which the total load of the building can be sup-
                                                                                              a  grid layout                                                                               ported and where the cohesion of the  masonry transfers 
                                                                                              A close study of the plan layouts of the (no longer existent)                                such a significant moment to balance the low horizontal 
                                                                                              Academy of Architecture in Berlin reveals how Schinkel                                       thrust that every small opening generates; instead, the 
                                                                                              was tied to the  column  grid when trying to realise the                                     whole load is distributed over a system of columns which 
                                                                                              actual internal layout requirements. The possibility of                                      stand on a comparatively small plan area and at the vari-
                                                                                              creating interiors without intervening columns, as he had                                    ous points within their height are subjected to a number of 
                                                                                              seen and marvelled at on his trip to England in 1826, was                                    significant  compression loads acting in the most diverse 
                                                                                              not available to him for reasons of cost. The factories in                                   directions... Only after the columns collect the total verti-
                                                                                              Prussia could not supply any construction systems that                                       cal load they should carry and, with their maximum height, 
                                                                                                                                                                                           have been given a significant degree of strength should 
                                                                                                                                                                                           the windows with their arches, lintels, and spandrel panels 
                                                                                                                                                                                           be gradually added and the entire finer  cladding material 
                                                                                                                                                                                           for cornices and ornaments incorporated. Only in this way 
                                                                                                                                                                                           is it possible, if not to avoid totally the settlement of the 
                                                                                                                                                                                           building or individual parts of the same, but to at least 
                                                                                                                                                                                           divert it from those parts that suffer most from unequal 
                                                                                                                                                                                            compression and in which the effects of the same are 
                                                                                                                                                                                           most conspicuous.”
                                   Fig. 75: Reduction of the structure
                                   Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Academy of Architecture           permitted multi-storey buildings with large-span floors. 
                                   (destroyed), Berlin (D), 1836
                                                                                              He therefore had to be content with a system of  masonry 
                                                                                              piers and shallow vaults (jack arches).
                                                                                                    The Academy of Architecture was based on a 
                                                                                              5.50 x 5.50 m  grid. The intersections of the  grid lines 
                                                                                              were marked by  masonry columns which, as was custom-
                                                                                              ary at the time, narrowed stepwise as they rose through 
                                                                                              the building, the steps being used to support the floors. 
                                                                                              Some of these columns were only as high as the vaulting 
                                                                                              on shallow transverse arches provided for reasons of  fire 
                                                                                              protection. The continuity of the  masonry columns was vis-
                                                                                              ible only on the external walls. This was a building without 
                                                                                              loadbearing walls. It would have been extremely enlighten-
                                                                                              ing to have been able to return this building to its structural 
                                                                                              elements just once. It must have had fantastic lines!
                                                                                                    The building was braced by wrought iron ties and 
                                                                                              masonr      y transverse arches in all directions, joining the 
                                                                                              columns. A  frame was certainly apparent but was not 
                                                                                              properly realised. At the same time, in his Academy of 
                                                                                              Architecture Schinkel exploited to the full the opportuni-
                                                                                              ties of building with bricks; for compared with modern 
                                                                                                frame construction, which can make use of mould-
                                                                                              able, synthetic and tensile bending-resistant materials 
                                                                                              ( re inforced concrete, steel, timber and wood-based prod-
                                                                                              ucts), the possibilities of  masonry units are extremely 
                                                                                              limited. Schinkel managed to coax the utmost out of the 
                                                                                              traditional  clay  brickwork and accomplished an incredible 
                                                                                              clarity and unity on an architectural, spatial, and building 
                                                                                              technology level.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     51
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...Andrea deplazes ed birkhauser constructing architecture materials processes structures a handbook modules msonry types of construction publishers for basel boston berlin masonry systems in compartmentation although today we are not necessarily restricted our the building compartments is typical trait choice because sheer unlimited construc by mean system tional possibilities available economic considerations inter linked fully enclosed spaces whose connections with frequently force similar decisions one another and to outside consist only individual but as long range conditions compart openings windows doors outward appearance mentation related itself build whole host reasons compartment like how ings distinguished remarkable clarity their ever at least this type does present self internal organisation looked contained form simple cubelike outlines positively if regard provisional end compact uses being s ignor full all walls can be loaded equally ing developments since it possible fin...

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