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ANDREA DEPLAZES (ED.) BIRKHÄUSER
CONSTRUCTING ARCHITECTURE
MATERIALS PROCESSES STRUCTURES
A HANDBOOK
Materials-Modules
Msonry
2-2 Types of Construction
Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture
Basel · Boston · Berlin
MATERIALS – MODULES Masonry
Systems in architecture
Types of construction
Compartmentation Although today we are not necessarily restricted in our
The building of compartments is a typical trait of masonry choice of materials (because sheer unlimited construc-
construction. By compartments we mean a system of tional possibilities are available), economic considerations
inter linked, fully enclosed spaces whose connections with frequently force similar decisions.
one another and to the outside consist only of individual But as long as the range of conditions for compart-
openings (windows, doors). The outward appearance is, mentation are related to the construction itself, the build-
for a whole host of reasons, “ compartment-like”. How- ings are distinguished by a remarkable clarity in their
ever, at least this type of construction does present a self- internal organisation and outward appearance. Looked
contained building form with simple, cubelike outlines. at positively, if we regard the provisional end of compact
The compartment system uses the possibilities of the compartment construction as being in the 1930s (ignor-
masonry to the full. All the walls can be loaded equally ing developments since 1945), it is possible to find good
and can stabilise each other, and hence their dimensions examples, primarily among the residential buildings of that
(insofar as they are derived from the loadbearing function) time. After the war, developments led to variations on this
can be minimised. The plan layout options are, however, theme. The compartmentation principle was solved three-
limited. dimensionally and is, in combination with small and mini
forms, quite suitable for masonry; through experimenta-
tion, however, it would eventually become alienated into a
hybrid form, mixed with other types of construction.
Box frame construction
This is the provision of several or many loadbearing
walls in a parallel arrangement enclosing a large number
of boxlike spaces subject to identical conditions. The
intention behind this form of construction might be, for
instance, to create repetitive spaces or buildings facing
Fig. 71: Compartmentation as a principle: Of the categories presented here, compartmenta-
elevation (top) and plan of upper floor (right) tion is the oldest type of construction. Contraints were
Adolf Loos: Moller House, Vienna (A), 1928
imposed naturally by the materials available – apart
from the frame we are aware of coursed masonry and,
for floors and roofs, timber joists as valid precepts up
until the 19th century. Over centuries these constraints
led to the development and establishment of this form
of construction in the respective architectural con-
text. In fact, in the past the possibilities of one-way-
spanning floor systems (timber joist floors) were not fully
exploited. Today, the reinforced concrete slab, which
normally spans in two directions, presents us with opti-
mum utilisation options.
The following criteria have considerable influence on the
order and discipline of an architectural design:
– the need to limit the depth and orientation of the
plans;
– and together with this the independence of horizon-
tal loadbearing systems (timber joists span approx.
4.5 m) at least in one direction;
– and together with this the restriction on the covered
areas principally to a few space relationships and lay-
outs;
– openings in loadbearing walls are positioned not at
random but rather limited and arranged to suit the
loadbearing structure. Fig. 72: Box frames as a governing design principle
Le Corbusier: private house (Sarabhai), Achmedabad (India), 1955
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MATERIALS – MODULES Masonry
Systems in architecture
in a principal direction for reasons of sunlight or the view, walls (plates) and partly by non-loadbearing elements
or simply the growing need for buildings – linked with (e.g. glass partitions). This presupposes the availability of
the attempt to reach an aesthetic but likewise economical horizontal loadbearing elements which comply with these
and technically simple basic form. In fact, box frame con- various conditions in the sense of load relief and transfer
struction does present an appearance of conformity. After of horizontal forces.
all, a row is without doubt an aesthetic principle which is We therefore have essentially two criteria:
acknowledged as such. – A type of spatial (fluid) connection and opening, the
In terms of construction, a box frame is a series of likes of which are not possible in the rigid box frame
loadbearing walls transverse to the longitudinal axis of system, but especially in compartmentation.
a building, which are joined by the floors to longitudinal – The technical restrictions with respect to the suitability
walls which stabilise the whole structure. To a certain of this arrangement for masonry materials; inevitably,
extent, a true box frame is not possible owing to the need the random positioning of walls leads to problems of
for stability in the longitudinal direction, which is laid down bearing pressure at the ends of such wall plates or at
in numerous standards. Therefore, box frame construc- individual points where concentrated loads from the
tion is frequently used in conjunction with other categories horizontal elements have to be carried.
(compartmentation and plates). The following criteria pre- Only in special cases will it therefore be possible to
ordain box frame construction for certain building tasks create such an unrestricted system from homogeneous
and restrict its degree of usefulness: masonry (using the option of varying the thickness of the
– Restrictions to width of rooms and building by spans walls or columns).
that are prescribed in terms of materials, economy, Nevertheless, we wish to have the option of regard-
etc. (e.g. one-way-spanning floors). ing buildings not as self-contained entities but rather as
– Heavy – because they are loadbearing – parti tions sequences of spaces and connections from inside and
with correspondingly good insulation properties outside. As the wall is, in principle, unprejudiced with re-
(“screening” against the neighbours). gard to functional conditions and design intentions, the
– External walls without restrictions on their construc- various characteristics of the wall can be traced back to
tion, with maximum light admittance, option of deep the beginnings of modern building.
plans and favourable facade–plan area ratios. The catalyst for this development was indubitably
The first examples of true box frames originated on the Frank Lloyd Wright, who with his “prairie houses”, as he
drawing boards of architects who wanted to distance called the first examples, understood how to set stand-
themselves from such primary arguments; the large resi- ards. The interior spaces intersect, low and broad, and
dential estates of the 1920s designed by Taut, Wagner, and terraces and gardens merge into one.
May, influenced by industrial methods of manu facture. Mies van der Rohe’s design for a country house in
brickwork (1923) is a good example (see “Masonry;
Plates Masonry bonds”). Here, he combines the flexible rules of
In contrast to the parallel accumulation of boxes, we as- composition with Frank Lloyd Wright’s organic building
sume that plates enable an unrestricted positioning of principles, the fusion with the landscape.
walls beneath a horizontal loadbearing structure ( floor or The plan layout is derived exclusively from the func-
roof). tions. The rooms are bounded by plain, straight, and
So, provided these plates do not surround spaces (too) right-angled, intersecting walls, which are elevated to de-
Fig. 73: Uninterrupted space continuum completely – i.e. do not form compartments – we can sign elements and by extending far into the gardens link
Marcel Breuer: Robinson House, Williamstown
(USA), 1948 create spaces that are demarcated partly by load bearing the house with its surroundings. Instead of the window
apertures so typical of compartmentation, complete wall
sections are omitted here to create the openings.
Richard Neutra and Marcel Breuer, representing the
International Style, provide further typical examples. The
sublimation of the wall to a planar, loadbearing element
that completely fulfils an enclosing function as well is both
modern and ancient.
We have to admit that pure forms, like those used
by the protagonists of modern building, are on the
decline. Combinations of systems are both normal and valid.
A chamber can have a stiffening, stabilising effect in the
sense of a compartment (this may well be functional if
Fig. 74: The openings lend structure to and result from the arrangement of the plates indeed not physical).
Marcel Breuer: Gane’s Pavilion, Bristol (GB), 1936
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MATERIALS – MODULES Masonry
Systems in architecture
The box frame can be employed to form identical in- Owing to the faulted subsoil, the chosen form of
terior spaces. And the straight or right-angled plate per- construction led to major settlement problems because
mits user-defined elements right up to intervention in the the columns had to carry different compression loads.
external spaces. Flaminius described the problems that occurred: “There
are no long, continuous walls with small or even no open-
Schinkel’s Academy of Architecture: an example of ings on which the total load of the building can be sup-
a grid layout ported and where the cohesion of the masonry transfers
A close study of the plan layouts of the (no longer existent) such a significant moment to balance the low horizontal
Academy of Architecture in Berlin reveals how Schinkel thrust that every small opening generates; instead, the
was tied to the column grid when trying to realise the whole load is distributed over a system of columns which
actual internal layout requirements. The possibility of stand on a comparatively small plan area and at the vari-
creating interiors without intervening columns, as he had ous points within their height are subjected to a number of
seen and marvelled at on his trip to England in 1826, was significant compression loads acting in the most diverse
not available to him for reasons of cost. The factories in directions... Only after the columns collect the total verti-
Prussia could not supply any construction systems that cal load they should carry and, with their maximum height,
have been given a significant degree of strength should
the windows with their arches, lintels, and spandrel panels
be gradually added and the entire finer cladding material
for cornices and ornaments incorporated. Only in this way
is it possible, if not to avoid totally the settlement of the
building or individual parts of the same, but to at least
divert it from those parts that suffer most from unequal
compression and in which the effects of the same are
most conspicuous.”
Fig. 75: Reduction of the structure
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Academy of Architecture permitted multi-storey buildings with large-span floors.
(destroyed), Berlin (D), 1836
He therefore had to be content with a system of masonry
piers and shallow vaults (jack arches).
The Academy of Architecture was based on a
5.50 x 5.50 m grid. The intersections of the grid lines
were marked by masonry columns which, as was custom-
ary at the time, narrowed stepwise as they rose through
the building, the steps being used to support the floors.
Some of these columns were only as high as the vaulting
on shallow transverse arches provided for reasons of fire
protection. The continuity of the masonry columns was vis-
ible only on the external walls. This was a building without
loadbearing walls. It would have been extremely enlighten-
ing to have been able to return this building to its structural
elements just once. It must have had fantastic lines!
The building was braced by wrought iron ties and
masonr y transverse arches in all directions, joining the
columns. A frame was certainly apparent but was not
properly realised. At the same time, in his Academy of
Architecture Schinkel exploited to the full the opportuni-
ties of building with bricks; for compared with modern
frame construction, which can make use of mould-
able, synthetic and tensile bending-resistant materials
( re inforced concrete, steel, timber and wood-based prod-
ucts), the possibilities of masonry units are extremely
limited. Schinkel managed to coax the utmost out of the
traditional clay brickwork and accomplished an incredible
clarity and unity on an architectural, spatial, and building
technology level.
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