RESEARCH
        The Layers of 
        Research Design
        By Mark Saunders and Paul Tosey
        Introduction                                      philosophy, is her or his personal view of         subsequently processed subjectively by 
        Most researchers design a piece of research       what constitutes acceptable knowledge              the mind. For the critical realist researcher 
        to answer a question or address a problem.        and the process by which this is developed.        this means that there is a need to find out 
        They begin by working out what data               A researcher who is concerned with                 both what is immediately experienced and 
        are needed and then focus how they will           observable phenomena, such as the                  the structures and relationships that lie 
        obtain these data. Obtaining these data can       resources needed in a manufacturing                beneath this; in other words to consider 
        involve one or a number of data collection        process, is likely to have a very different        the underlying complexity. Consequently, 
        techniques such as questionnaires,                view on the way research should be                 collection techniques and analysis 
        interviews, and observation as well as            conducted from one concerned with                  procedures are varied utilising either or 
        making use of secondary data. However,            understanding the subjective meanings of           both quantitative and qualitative data.
        selection of technique or techniques used         the feelings and attitudes of the workers              Where the researcher is more 
        to obtain data, along with procedures to          in that same manufacturing process. Not            concerned with gathering rich insights 
        analyse these data, represents only the final     only will their methodological choice and          into subjective meanings than providing 
        decision about the overall research design.       strategies differ considerably, but so will        law-like generalisations, she or he is 
        Within this article we use the metaphor of        their views on what data are important and,        more likely to reflect the philosophy of 
        the ‘Research Onion’ (*1; p. 128) to illustrate   perhaps more significantly, what are useful.       interpretivism. This philosophy relates to the 
        how these final elements (the core of the             A researcher who is concerned with             study of social phenomena in their natural 
        research onion) need to be considered             observing and predicting outcomes is,              environment. It focuses upon conducting 
        in relation to other design elements (the         like a laboratory scientist, concerned with        research amongst people rather than upon 
        outer layers of the research onion). It is the    law-like generalisations such as cause             objects, adopting an empathetic stance so 
        researcher’s understandings and associated        and effect; reflecting the philosophy of           as to understand their social world and the 
        decisions in relation to these outer layers       positivism. She or he adopts what is often         meaning they give to it from their point of 
        that provide the context and boundaries           referred to as ‘scientific method’ to propose      view. Unlike the positivist, the interpretivist 
        within which data collection techniques           and test theories with data which are highly       researcher considers research is value 
        and analysis procedures will be selected.         structured and usually measurable and              bound, what is being researched being a 
            This article is concerned with the outer      in which the research is not influenced            function of a particular set of circumstances 
        layers of the research onion (Fig. 1)(*2)         by the researcher’s values. This usually           and individuals at a specific time. Data 
        and the implications of these elements            involves large samples of quantitative data        collection and analysis are, therefore, likely 
        for the overall research design including         and statistical hypothesis testing. Where a        to involve qualitative data from in-depth 
        data collection techniques and analysis           theory is not confirmed by findings (based         investigations with small samples.
        procedures. However, unlike outer layers          on the analysis of these data) there is a              For researchers who adopt the 
        of an onion, which are simply discarded as        need to revise the theory.                         philosophy of pragmatism, the importance 
        unnecessary, explicit consideration of these          Like positivism, realism is a                  of research is in the findings’ practical 
        elements is crucial to the development            philosophical position associated with             consequences. They consider that no single 
        of an appropriate and coherent research           scientific enquiry. Realism states that reality    viewpoint can ever give the entire picture 
        design which can be both justified and            exists independent of the mind and that            and that there may be multiple realities. 
        explained. Within this article we start at        what a researcher’s senses show her or             This does not mean that a pragmatist 
        the outermost layer offering an overview          him is the truth, although the researcher is       researcher would always use a variety of 
        of different research philosophies and their      influenced by world views and their own            data collection techniques and analysis 
        implications for the research design. We          experiences. Philosophers distinguish              procedures; rather the research design 
        then peel back each of the subsequent             between two forms of realism: direct               should enable credible, reliable and 
        layers considering the implications of            realism and critical realism. A researcher         relevant data to be collected that support 
        methodological choice, strategy(ies) and          reflecting a direct realist position argues        subsequent action.
        the time horizon for design. We conclude          that what is experienced through our 
        by emphasising the importance of the              senses provides an accurate representation.        Methodological choice
        coherence in research design.                     In contrast, a researcher reflecting a             This layer of the research onion highlights 
        See FIG 1                                         critical realist position argues that what         a basic but important choice all researchers 
                                                          is initially experienced through senses is         face when designing their research: 
        Research philosophy                                                                                  whether to use a quantitative method or 
        How a researcher views the world, her or                Most researchers                             methods, a qualitative method or methods, 
        his taken-for-granted assumptions about           design a piece of                                  or a mixture of both? Researchers can 
        human knowledge and about the nature of                                                              choose to use a single data collection 
        the realities encountered, inevitably shape       research to answer a  technique and corresponding analysis 
        how a research question is understood             question or address                                procedure, either a mono method 
        and the associated research design. The                                                              quantitative design (for example, data 
        main influence on this, a researcher’s            a problem                                          collected using a questionnaire, analysed 
        58 ]  Winter 2012/2013  -  RAPPORT
                                                                                                                                                                                              RESEARCH
                                                                                         Like positivism, 
                                                                                  realism is a philosophical 
                                                                                  position associated with 
                Mark Saunders                   Paul Tosey                        scientific enquiry 
                statistically) or a mono method qualitative                      the strategies in Fig. 1 within the confines                     ‘snapshot’ is cross-sectional and is likely to 
                design (for example, data collected through                      of this article (see (*1) for further detail),                   make use of strategies such as a survey or 
                in depth interviews, analysed as narratives).                    it is important to note that, although in                        case study. Conversely, where answering 
                Alternatively, they can use multiple                             some cases researchers associate particular                      the question or addressing the problem 
                methods. In multimethod quantitative                             research strategies with particular research                     necessitates data being collected for an 
                designs the researcher uses more than one                        philosophies, the boundaries between                             extended period of time, the research is 
                quantitative data collection technique (for                      them are often permeable. Ethnography,                           longitudinal, being likely to make particular 
                example, a questionnaire and structured                          for example, is associated with both realism                     use of strategies such as an experiment, 
                observation) with associated statistical                         and intepretivism. Conversely, whilst both                       action research, grounded theory and 
                analysis procedures. For multimethod                             the experiment and the survey research                           archival research.
                qualitative designs she or he uses more than                     strategies are normally associated with 
                one qualitative data collection technique                        positivism, they are also used by realist                        Concluding remarks
                (for example, in-depth interviews and                            and pragmatist researchers. Similarly,                           Designing research to answer a question or 
                diary accounts) are used with associated                         whilst a case study, perhaps of an individual                    address a problem is invariably constrained 
                analysis procedures. A mixed methods                             organisation, is often associated with                           both by what is practicable and, of equal 
                design combines both qualitative and                             interpretivism, case studies are also used in                    importance, what is ethical. Within this 
                quantitative data collection techniques                          positivistic research.                                           article we have highlighted how, within 
                and analysis procedures. This means the                                                                                           the design, an understanding of outer 
                researcher could start with a qualitative                        Time horizon                                                     layers of research philosophy, possible 
                data collection and analysis (for example,                       The final layer of the research onion,                           methodological choices, strategies and the 
                a series of focus groups to help determine                       before reaching the core, highlights the                         time horizon and their inter-relationships is 
                the breadth of possible factors) and follow                      time horizon over which the researcher                           important. These help ensure that the core 
                this with quantitative data collection and                       undertakes the research. Where research                          of data collection techniques and analysis 
                analysis (for example, a questionnaire to                        is undertaken to answer a question or                            procedures used in the research undertaken 
                determine the relative frequency of these                        address a problem at a particular time this                      are both appropriate and coherent. 
                different factors); a mixed method simple                                                                                                                          Research
                design. Alternatively, they could choose                                                                              Positivism                                   philosophy
                to use quantitative analysis techniques 
                to analyse qualitative data quantitatively                                                                                                                         Methodical
                (for example comparing statistically the                                                              Mono method                                                  choice
                frequency of occurrence of different                                                                   quantitative                                    Realism
                concepts in in-depth interview transcripts                                                       Survey                           Mono method
                between different groups) or vice versa; a                                         Experiment               Archival               qualitative
                mixed method complex design.                                                                                  Research
                                                                                                       Cross-sectional                                     Multimethod
                Strategy(ies)                                                                         Data                                                  quantitative
                Peeling away the methodological choice                                              collection                        Case Study
                reveals the next layer of the onion:                                                and data
                strategy(ies). This layer’s label emphasises                                         analysis                       Ethnography         Multimethod
                immediately that researchers can use                                                  Longitudinal                                        qualitative
                one or more strategies within their                                                Narrative                Action Research
                research design as they plan how to go                                                  Inquiry    Grounded                                               Interpretivism
                about answering a research questions                                                                 Theory                   Mixed method
                or addressing a research question. A                                                                 Mixed method                 simple
                researcher may adopt an action research                                                                 complex                                                    Strategy(ies)
                strategy by working with practitioners to                                                                                                                          Time horizon
                bring about organisational change within                                                                             Pragmatism
                which she also adopts a survey strategy                                                                                                                            Techniques and
                to collect data in a structured form from                                                                                                                          procedures
                a sizeable number of employees. Whilst                           Fig. 1: The research onion
                it is not possible to describe or discuss all                    Source: ©Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill (2011), adapted with permission
                  REFERENCES:
                  (*1) Saunders, M, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A (2012) Research Methods for               Mark N.K. Saunders BA MSc PGCE PhD FCIPD is Professor of Business Research Methods and 
                  Business Students, 6th edition, Pearson.                                              Director of Postgraduate Research Programmes at the Surrey Business School, University of 
                  (*2) For the purposes of this short article we have omitted the layer labelled        Surrey. Email: mark.saunders@surrey.ac.uk.
                  ‘Approach’, comprising deduction, induction and abduction, that appears in            Paul Tosey BSc MSc PhD is a Senior Lecturer and Head of PhD programmes at the Surrey 
                  the original diagram. For a discussion of this layer see (*1) pp. 143–9.              Business School, University of Surrey. Email: p.tosey@surrey.ac.uk.
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