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                             BAB II
              KAJIAN PUSTAKA, KERANGKA PEMIKIRAN DAN HIPOTESIS
           2.1. Kajian Pustaka
              Kajian pustaka pada intinya mengandung makna aktivitas peneliti untuk
           berdialog secara kritis dengan pendapat pihak lain atau dengan teori-teori mengenai
           variabel   yang   dipergunakan   dalam   penelitian.  Adapun   teori   tersebut   ditelusuri
           sehingga dapat menjelaskan semua variabel yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian dan
           dapat menjelaskan serta mengukur permasalahan yang timbul atau yang didapat.
           Selanjutnya untuk memperkuat penelitian ini diperlukan penelitian yang sebelumnya
           yang dapat berkaitan atau yang dapat dilanjutkan seterusnya.
           2.1.1. Penelitian Yang Relevan
           a. Penelitian Firmansyah (2006) dengan judul disertasi “Pengaruh Implementasi
           Kebijakan Tata Ruang Terhadap Pemanfaatan Ruang Kabupaten dan Kota di Provinsi
           Jawa Barat”. Masalah yang terjadi tidak sesuainya pemanfaatan ruang dengan
           rencana   tata   ruang.   Metode   yang   digunakan   adalah   metode   survey     dengan
           pendekatan kuantitatif, metode analisis yang  digunakan adalah analisis jalur. Hasil
           penelitiannya menunjukan bahwa implementasi kebijakan tata ruang secara signifikan
           berpengaruh terhadap efektifitas pemanfaatan ruang dan juga terdapat faktor lain
           yang mempengaruhi (residu). Dengan demikian hasil penelitian diatas ada keterkaitan
           dengan yang diteliti oleh peneliti yaitu implementasi kebijakan.
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           b.   Penelitian   Haryoso  Sumo Prawiro (2003) dengan judul disertasi “Pengaruh
           Kemampuan Sumber Daya Aparat Birokrasi dan Formulasi Kebijakan terhadap
           keberhasilan implementasinya”. Lokasi penelitian di Kabupaten Pati Provinsi Jawa
           Tengah. Masalah yang diteliti adalah hubungan antara kemampuan sumber daya
           aparat birokrasi dan formulasi kebijakan terhadap keberhasilan implementasinya.
           Metode yang digunakan adalah metode survey dengan pendekatan kuantitatif dan
           metode analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis jalur. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan
           bahwa kemampuan sumber daya aparatur   berpengaruh   terhadap   keberhasilan
           implementasinya   dan   formulasi   kebijakan   berpengaruh   terhadap   keberhasilan
           implementasinya, juga ada pengaruh dari variabel lain yang tidak diteliti. Dengan
           demikian penelitian ini ada kaitan dengan penelitian yang dilakukan peneliti yaitu
           kemampuan sumber daya dapat identik dengan pengembangan sumber daya.
           c. Penelitian Dirk J. Van Wasbeek (2004), dalam program doktor Robert Kennedy
           College   Delemont   Switzerland,   dengan   judul  “Human   Resource   Management
           Practices in Selected Ethiopian Private Companies (A Study to Increase Employee
           Productivity in Ethiopia).” Yang menyatakan : 
                This  dissertation  examines  how  human  resources  are  managed  at
                selected  Ethiopian  private   companies,   how    Ethiopian  human
                resource  management practice   is   evolving   and   how   it   can   be
                improved.   The   examination   is qualitative   and exploratory, since no
                comparative research   on human resource management has yet been
                conducted  at  Ethiopian  profit  or  non-profit  organizations.    An
                understanding  of  Ethiopian  human  resource  management practice
                makes it possible to improve Ethiopian human resource management
                practice, and thus to increase employee productivity. The  study  took
                place  at  four  manufacturing  and  four service  companies  in Addis
                Ababa, all representative  of  their  sector.  The  research  claim  is  that
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                                  Ethiopian human resource management practices differ  from  human
                                  resource  management  practices  in  the  West,  due  to differences in
                                  cultural  factors,  economic  systems,  political  systems,  and  legal and
                                  industrial  relations.  For  this  reason,  Ethiopia’s  culture,  politics,
                                  economy and legal and industrial relations have been analyzed. The
                                  main  finding  of   this  study   is  that  the   importance  of   human
                                  resource management  is  not  uniformly  understood  at  all  the  case-
                                  study  companies. Although  the  multinational  companies  based  in
                                  Ethiopia    see    their    human  resources    as    the    companies’    most
                                  important  asset,  as  human  capital,  the local companies generally do
                                  not. The   fact   that   respondents   claim   that   Ethiopia   has   limited
                                  experience  in industrialization  might  explain  why  human  resource
                                  management  in  Ethiopia is rudimentary and still has a long way to go.
                                  With   this   dissertation   the   researcher   wants   to   contribute   to
                                  improving  Ethiopian    human    resource    management    practice.
                                  Moreover,  this  dissertation may be  used  as  a framework  for  similar
                                  research in other sectors or for more specific  in-depth  research.  This
                                  dissertation    may  also    serve  as  a    knowledge  basefor  company
                                  managers, business   consultants, academics      and       government
                                  officials  of  countries  with  a  national  culture  similar  to  Ethiopia’s
                                  (for  example  Kenya,  Tanzania  and  Zambia),  countries  undergoing
                                  (or    which  have  undergone)  a  recent  transition  to  a  free  market
                                  economy, and countries facing similar macro-economic developments.
                              Disertasi di atas menguji bagaimana Manajemen Sumber daya Manusia
                       diimplementasikan di beberapa perusahaan swasta Ethiopia, dalam disertasi ini juga
                       diperbandingkan antara organisasi baik profit maupun tidak, dalam penelitian ini
                       Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia dapat dipakai sebagai variabel dan dapat
                       mempengaruhi atau sebagai penyebab.
                       d.   Penelitian   Rebecca   Nthogo   Lekoko   (2002)   dalam   program   doktor  The
                       Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education, yaitu:
                                  A hermeneutic-phenomenological interviewing was conducted to explore
                                  CBEWs’ previous  work  and  training  experiences  and  how   such
                                  experiences   contributed   to   their   present  working  relationships  as
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                partners in community development. CBEWs’ responses foreshadowed
                challenges and problems of coordination that could have otherwise been
                addressed  had  they  been  considered integral elements of previous
                training   curricula.      The   findings    further   throw    light    on    how
                government  policies, though explicitly formulated to enhance conditions
                of service coordination, can be in variance with realities of coordination
                at  the village  level.    Awareness  of the  fissure  of policies  and  actual
                coordination does not refute the importance of government intervention
                in   community   development,   given   CBEWs’  status   as   government
                employees.   Rather, it is only with understanding of and familiarity with
                CBEWs’ circumstances  that  such  policies  would  truly address the
                challenges, problems, and possibilities of effective coordination. CBEWs’
                comments reflected both awareness and learned understanding of social
                and political  complexities  surrounding  their  work  as   partners  in
                community development. Authority and interventions such as political
                interference, illiterate communities, enlightened communities, passive,
                and negative attitudes complicate their working together, resulting into
                problems of resistance, rejection, and other tensions that defeat the spirit
                of working together.  Meaningful acceptance of community development
                as a collective  undertaking  needs  to  be  backed  by  a  deliberate
                unification   of   CBEWs through    a    centrally    organized    training.
                Such    training    programs    must    not    only illuminate  the  lived
                experiences of CBEWs as they work among themselves and with other
                community-based groups in the villages, but also provide opportunities
                for CBEWs  to  take  active  roles  by  engaging  in  activities such as
                placements in authentic work settings, mini-interdisciplinary groupings
                of CBEWs with local communities, and other team activities.   There will
                be no end to the reservoir of learning if intentional efforts are made to
                incorporate local knowledge and needs, that is, immediate challenges,
                problems,  and  needs  of  CBEWs  as  they  work  with  the  local
                communities. Beside, effective  coordination  requires  basic skills  of
                communication,   leadership   and  management,  personal  and  human
                relations,  technical   skills   and   relevant   attitudinal   orientations.   The
                features  describes  here  are  not  exhaustive,  but  have  in  common  the
                intent  of making training programs truly sensitive to CBEWs’ needs as
                partners in community development.
              Disertasi ini mencari lebih lanjut penjelasan tentang bagaimana kebijakan-
           kebijakan pemerintah diformulasikan secara tegas untuk mengembangkan berbagai
           kondisi bagi koordinasi pelayanan, yang bisa direalisasikan serta dikoordinasikan